42928 (Modal verbs), страница 2

We can represent a figure of a three-dimensional solid.

This meaning may also be expressed by to be able . The phrase can be used in all tense-forms if necessary.

In the meaning of ability and capability can occurs in all kinds of sentences.

E.g. Right and left we can go, backward and forward freely enough, and men always have done so. You can move about in all directions of Space, but you cannot move about in Time.

In this case can is followed by the simple infinitive and reference is made to the present. But depending on the context it may also refer to the future.

E.g. He can go up against gravitation in a balloon, and why should he not hope that ultimately he may be able to stop or accelerate his drift along the Time-Dimension, or even turn about and travel the other way?

However, if the time reference is not clear from the context or if it is necessary to stress that the action refers to the future, shall/will be able is used.

E.g. He will be able to write to us from Portugal. I shall be able to earn by own living soon.

The form could may be used in past-time contexts and in this case it is followed by a simple infinitive. It is a form of the Indicative Mood here.

E.g. A man could not cover himself with dust by rolling in a paradox, could he? But then where could it be? After what had happened I couldn’t trust him.

The form could may also be used in present-time context in combination with the simple infinitive to express unreality with reference to the present or future.

E.g. I told myself that I could never stop, and with a gust of petulance I resolved to stop forthwith. (не смог бы прекратить).

You could articulate more distinctly with that cigarette our of your mouth. (мог бы говорить более отчетливо).

As the form could may be used in two ways it is usually undertoosd as expressing unreality with reference to the present or future unless there are indications of past time in the sentence or in the context. Thus the sentence She could paint landscapes will be understood as Она могла бы писать пейзажи.

If there is no indication of past time in the context but the speaker wishes to refer the action to the past, was/were able is used of could to avoid ambiguity.

E.g. She was able to explain the mystery.

In combination with the perfect infinitive could indicates that the action was not carried out in the past.

E.g. She could have explained the mystery. (Она могла бы объяснить эту тайну; но не объяснила).

1. possibility due to circumstances.

E.g. You can see the forest through the other window.

We can use either the Present Perfect of the Present Perfect Continuous in this sentence.

In this meaning can is found in all kinds of sentences. It is followed by the simple infinitive and it refers the action to the present of future.

E.g. You can obtain a dog from the Dog’s Home.

Can we use the indefinite article with this noun?

We can’t use the indefinite article with this noun.

In past-time contexts the form could is used. It is followed by the simple infinitive in this case.

E.g. You could see the forest through the other window before the new block of houses was erected.

The form could in combination with the simple infinitive may also express unreality with reference to the present of future.

E.g. You could see the houses from here if it were not so dark.

In combination with the perfect infinitive, could indicate that the action was not carried out in the past.

E.g. You could have seen the house from there if it had not been so dark.

1. Permission

E.g. You can take my umbrella.

Can in this meaning is found in affirmative sentences, interrogative sentences in which a request is expressed, and in negative sentences where it expresses prohibition.

E.g. You can use my car. Can I use your car? You can’t use my car today.

In this meaning can is combined with the simple infinitive.

The form could with reference to the present is found only in interrogative sentences in which it expresses a more polite request.

E.g. Could I use your car?

The form could is found in reported speech (i.e. in accordance with the rules of the sequence of tenses).

E.g. He said that I could use his car.

He asked me if he could use my car.

1. uncertainty, doubt

E.g. Can it be true?

In this meaning can is found only in interrogative sentences (in general questions). Besides, sentences of this kind are often emotionally colored and so their application is rather restricted.

Depending on the time reference, can in this meaning is used in combination with different forms of the infinitive.

Thus, if reference is made to the present, the simple infinitive is found with static verbs.

E.g. Can he really be ill?

Can it be so late?

With dynamic verbs, the continuous infinitive is used.

E.g. Can she be telling lies?

Can he be making the investigation all alone?

Can in combination with the perfect infinitive refers the action to the past.

E.g. Can he have said it? Can she have told a lie?

The combination of can with the perfect infinitive may also indicate an action begun in the past and continued into the moment of speaking. This is usually found with static verbs.

E.g. Can she really have been at home all this time?

However, if can is followed by a dynamic verb the Perfect Continuous infinitive is used.

E.g. Can she have been waiting for us so long?

Could with reference to the present is also used in this way, implying more uncertainty.

E.g. Could it be true?

Could she be telling lies?

Could he have said if?

Could she have been waiting for us so long?

In Russian both variants, with can and could, are rendered in the same way: Неужели это правда? Неужели он лжет? And so on.

1. Improbability

E.g. It can’t be true. (Это не может быть правдой. Вряд ли это так.)

In this meaning can is found only in negative sentences, which are often emotionally colored. Depending on the time reference, this can is also used with different forms of the infinitive/

E.g. He can’t be really ill.

She can’t be telling lies.

He can’t have said it.

She can’t have been at home all this time.

She can’t have been waiting for us so long.

Could is also used in this way making the statement less categorical

E.g. It couldn’t be true.

She couldn’t be telling lies.

He couldn’t have said it.

She couldn’t have been at home all this time.

She couldn’t have been waiting for us so long.

Can and could followed by different forms of the infinitive, are found in special questions where they are used for emotional coloring (to express puzzlement, impatience, etc.).

E.g. What can (could) he mean?

What can (could) he be doing?

What can (could) he have done?

Where can (could) he have gone to?

It can be rendered in Russian as: Что, собственно, он имеет в виду?

As is seen from the above examples, the form could referring to present is sometimes clearly opposed to can in that it expresses unreality whereas can expresses reality. This may be observed in the following meanings:

ability – He can speak English. He could speak English if necessary.

possibility due to circumstances – You can get the book from the library. You could get the book from the library if necessary. E.g. “You can have a million books on our television screen, and even more. There is nothing to throw away.” (I. Asimov)

“How could a man be a teacher? “ (I. Asimov)

In the other meanings, however, this difference between the two forms is obliterated. Could is used either as a milder or mote polite form of can as a form implying more uncertainty than can:

permission – Can I use your pen? Could I use your pen? (more polite)

uncertainty, doubt, improbability – Can it be true? Could it be true (less certain). It can’t be true. It couldn’t be true (less certain).

We can also find some examples of modal verbs usage in some newspapers , magazines or in literature.

E.g. It could be true but it is advisable to find out first what has really happened there. (Может быть, это и правда, но лучше сначала выяснить, что же действительно там произошло.)

“Honey, you couldn’t support a wife,” she answered cheerfully. “Anyway, I know you too well to fall in love with you.” (F. Scott Fitzgerald)

In this case the verb could is used here in the meaning of doubt, uncertainty and improbability.

May

The modal verb may has the following forms: may – the Present tense (e.g. it may be true) and might – the Past tense. The form might is used in two ways: a) in past-time contexts, mainly in reported speech in accordance with the rules of the sequence of tenses (e.g. He told me that it might be true) and b) in present-time contexts as a milder and more polite form of may, or as a form implying more uncertainty than may (e.g. Might I come and see you? It might be true), or to express unreality (e.g. He might have fallen ill if he hadn’t taken the pills).

May has the following meanings:

1) supposition implying uncertainty

E.g. He may be busy getting ready for his trip.

In Russian this meaning is generally rendered by means of the modal adverbs возможно and может быть.

In English this meaning may also be rendered by means of the attitudinal adverbs perhaps and maybe.

In the meaning of supposition implying uncertainty the verb may occurs in affirmative and negative sentences.

E.g. He may be at home.

He may not be at home (Возможно, что его нет дома).

Two factors may temporarily have increased their caution. (W. Faulkner)

In this meaning may can be followed by different forms of the infinitive depending on the time reference expressed.

May in combination with the simple infinitive usually refers the action to the future.

E.g. He may come soon.

The action may also refer to the present but only with stative verbs.

E.g. He may be ill.

He may not know about it.

May in combination with the Continuous infinitive of dynamic verbs refers the action to the present.

E.g. It’s too late to phone him now. He may be sleeping.

I never see him about now. For all I know, he may be writing a book.

May in combination with the Perfect infinitive refers the action to the past.

E.g. He may have fallen ill.

“What’s happened to the dog?” I asked. “It isn’t here. His master may have taken it with him.”

The combination of may with the Perfect infinitive may also indicate an action begun in the past and continued into the moment of speaking. This is usually found with stative verbs.

E.g. He may have been at home from about two hours.

However, if may is followed by a dynamic verb, the Perfect Continuous infinitive is used.

E.g. He may have been waiting for us for an hour.

In the meaning of supposition implying uncertainty, the form might is also found. It differs from the form may in that it emphasizes the idea of uncertainty. It may be followed by the simple, Continuous or Perfect infinitive.

E.g. He might come soon. He might be ill.

He might be doing his lesson now. He might have spoken to her yesterday.

1. possibility due to circumstances

E.g. You may order a taxi by telephone.

A useful rough-and-ready rule is that rime adverbs may come at either end of the sentence, but not in the middle.