186517 (Теоретическая грамматика), страница 3

Since the meaning of plurality is represented in many word forms, we may interpret it as a grammatical meaning & the word forms, representing it materially are called grammatical forms.

• Sthe plane of grammatical expression

• pluralitythe plane of grammatical meaning

The unity of the grammatical meaning with a grammatical form may testify to the existence of the grammatical category, but to establish grammatical category, we must find a system of paradigmatically correlated grammatical forms.

E.g.: boys can be correlated with boy's Since Within the noun we may come across the following paradigm, expressing the generalized notion of number.

E.g.: street - streets; ox - oxen ; foot - feet.

If we analyze the opposed forms street - streets, we may observe, that they are grammatically opposed, for 1 expresses singularity, the other - plurality. The 2 opposed meanings are united by a more abstract meaning of noun. This highly abstract meaning of noun represented by the paradigmatic correlation of 2 grammatical forms makes up a grammatical category. Likewise, we may establish the existence of the category of tense of the verb, but it will be represented by the grammatical opposition of 3 grammatical forms & grammatical meanings.

E.g. : ask - asked - will ask

present past future

The opposition of grammatical forms always represents the opposition of grammatical meanings.

The correlated elements of the grammatical opposition must posses common features & differential ones, i.e. one form must be unmarked, other forms must be marked by a certain morpheme.

"A grammatical category is a unity of a generalized grammatical meaning, with a set of paradigmatically correlated grammatical forms ".Professor Smirnitsky's Postulates of the Grammatical Category. Five postulates of the existence of grammatical categories. By this he defines grammatical category in a very convincing & exhausting way.

I. Any grammatical category must be represented by, at least, 2 grammatical forms. There're no languages in which you could find only one case form or one form of number. The minimal set of paradigmatically correlated forms is 2 forms.Category of case in English is represented by the opposition of 2 forms ( Common - Possessive ), Russian - 6 forms ( Падежи ).

II. No grammatical category can be represented by all the word forms of the word. If some grammatical meaning is inherent in all the word forms of the given word, we shall deal here not with a grammatical category but with lexico-grammatical category. Such is the Category of Gender in Russian. We can't change the noun according to the category of Gender, i.e. masculine, feminine, neuter.The set meanings of Gender are inherent in certain nouns. Some nouns belong to masculine gender, other - to feminine, and still other - neuter.

E.g. : дом, улица, небо

III. One word form may combine different grammatical categories. E.g. : the form " speaks " combines 5 categories ( grammatical meanings ) - tense, 3rd person, singular number, indicative mood, active voice.

IV. No word form can combine 2 categorial meanings ( grammatical meaning of the same category ) of 1 and the same category. You can not find singular and plural in one word form simultaneously.

E.g. : boys , boy

V. Every word form must represent at least one categorial form or belong to some grammatical category. There are no word forms without grammatical categories. In modern linguistics, it's generally accepted, that a grammatical category is represented by an opposeme of, at least, 2 forms. It follows from the theory workedout by linguist Nicolas Treubetskoy about binary opposition in Linguistics. He applied the opinion to phonology, but lateron he thought, that this method works very well in other spheres of Linguistics.Different parts of speech have different N. Of grammatical categories.

E.g. : the English verb is the most developed system from point of view of categories. Some think the verb has 6 grammatical categories, others ð 8 grammatical categories.

Tense

Person

Number

Mood

Voice

Aspect

Taxes

English noun has 2 categories ( number, case ). Adjective ð degree of comparison.

LECTURE N6.

3. Charles Friese's theory of the classes of words.

Every language contains ______ of words. When describing them, we should analize whether one word separately or unite them into classes possessing more or less common features. Linguists make use of both the approaches. A dictionary usually describes individual words. Grammar mostly deals with clases of words, traditionaly called parts of speech. The term " part of speech " is conventional. The well-known linguist Shcherba Z.V., Professor Smirnitsky prefer to use lexico-grammatical categories "; Professor Blokh operates with the term " grammatical classes of words "; Charles Fries calls the same thing " positional classes "; Professor Ilyish, the linguists Heimovich & Rogovskaya speak about " lexico-grammatical classes of word ". Up to this day, there's no generalagreement among the grammarians as to the number of the parts of speech, especially contraversial is the problem of delimiting parts of speech оn the basis of some common principles.

The 1st to introduce words into classes was Aristotle, who lived in between 384 - 322 B.C. Being a founder of logic Aristotle equated the relation of ideas in human mind with the relation of word in speech and established grammatical categories in terms of logic. He introduced in Grammar the notion of " subject " and "predicate ". His criterion for descriminating between parts of was the ability of words to express the parts oflogical proposition, i.e. the subject, the predicate and the copula.

Accordingly, Aristotle established 3 parts of speech : the name, the verb and the conjunction. By the " name " he meant the word which can perform the function of the subject. The " verb " represented the predicate. And by the conjunction he denoted all the functional words, such as prepositions, articles, conjunctions, particles.

Aristotle teaching was later continued by other scholars.Still the confusion of Grammar with the categories of logic remained.2.In the history of the part of speech there have been different criteria, according to which the part of speech have been singled out. Fortunatov concidered the parts of speech to be the formalgrammatical classes. His classification was purely morphological. He divided all the words into changeble and unchangeble. To the first group he refered noun, verb, adjective.

Others were unchangeble.

Shakhmatove's classification followed the syntactical principle. It proved to be one-sided.

The principles , оn which classifications are usually based nowadays , are 3 in number: meaningformfunction.

The meaning of the words, belonging to the class of the noun. The abstract meaning has thingness ( or substance ). The meaning of thingness applies to the meaning of the noun and constitutes the meaning of the noun as part of speech. Similarly , the meaning of the verb as a part of speech is action or process. The general meaning of a part of speech is neither lexical nor grammatical, but it is connected with both and we call it lexico-grammatical meaning. In the classical theory of the part of speech a semantic feature was a leading criteria in establishing a part of speech. In the structural linguistics (Ferdinand de Sausur ) the semantic principle was ignored ( Charles Fries ). There were Friese's supporters in Soviet Linguistics as well ( Leontyev, Shapkin etc. ). Their delimiting the classes of words. Besides, the words of different parts of speech are distinguished through their morphological features, their forms, their morphemes. The second principle of delimiting parts of speech is _____ of form. Grammatical forms represented grammatical categories. Thus, the noun is characterized by the categories of number and case; the verb - by the categories of tense, mood, voice, aspect, person and number.

By function we mean the syntectical properties of a certain class of words, what part it plays in the sentence.

The noun is usually preceded by adjective, prepositions, pronouns, articles and is followed by the verb. We call it combinability.The most convenient for us is the classification of part of speech, proposed by Khaimovich and Rogovskaya. According to them, we single out a certain class of words. We must take into consideration the following principles of this classification : Its lexical-grammatical meaning.

Its morphological features :

its form-building

its word-building

Combinability.

Its function in the sentence.

In accordance with these principles, the following parts of speech are distinguished in Modern English:

1). Nouns; 2). Adjectives; 3). Pronouns; 4). Numerals; 5). Verbs; 6). Adverbs; 7). Adlinks(the category of state); 8). Modal words(perhaps, of course, certainly, evidently, etc.); 9). Prepositions; 10). Conjunctions; 11). Particles;

12). Interjections; 13). Articles; 14). Response words.

3. Charles Fries was a representative of the American Descriptive school. He applied only 1 principle in delimiting parts of speech - the principle of function. His classes of words can be hardly called parts of speech. He calls them "positional classes" that are established by the methods of distribution & substitution. His principle is synthetical. According to him, the speaker gets sygnals of common classes of word from the position, the word occupies in the sentence. The meaning of the word being unnecessary.

E.g.: Woggles ugged diggles.

The sygnals of structural meaning( thingness or action) are called by Fries "Formal classes". He doesn't deny the term "parts of speech". Further, he establishes the words, that are characterized by a similar set of positions, which enables him to refer certain words to this or that common class. For this purpose, he takes the minimal utterance( or frames).

Class 1 Cl. 3

Frame A: The concert was good.

Cl.2

Frame B: The cleark remembered the text.

Cl.4

Frame C: The team went there.

So, he established 4 classes of notional words & 15 classes of functional ones. He considered his classification to highly objective, because it is structural. Later оп - 64 classes of functional words He himself calls the classes - "positional classes of words". Parts of speech are subdivided further, they're objective to sub-catigo-rization. Nouns: common & proper; countable & uncountable; abstract nouns... Verbs: notional & functional;...

LECTURE 7.