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3. The allo-emic principle.
4. The types of morphemes.
5. Types of word-form derivation.
1. Grammar has two constituent parts: Morphology & Syntax.
Morphology deals with morphological units (the morpheme & the word); word-forms, which signify some general conceptual notions (grammar. meanings, grammatical forms, grammatical categories). It also studies the parts of speech. Morphology has certain branches: one of them is morpho-phonemics, which describes the phonological representation of meaningful morphemes.
E.g.: morphophonemic vowel interchange in "ring - rang - rung" plays a definite part in the system of form-building. The vowel interchange in the words "food -feed is a means of word-building.
Another branch of Morphology - morphemics deals with the description of the morphological models of the language. In other words, it describes the morpheme structure, the ways of their location in the units of high level. E.g.: 2. Even casual comparison of such word form as dogs, boys, with the
corresponding dog, boy, will show that the 1st set may be split into 2 grammatically significant elements (+), which, on the one hand, convey the meaning, and on the other, cause the certain agreement between the words in a sentence. Thus, we say: "The dog sleeps in a kennel", but "The dogs sleep in a kennel. The form "dog" can't be divided into future grammatically significant elements. Further division may be only phonologically. The described minimal grammatical units are called morphemes. They are delimited by comparing word form with one another and by singling out the recurrent pieces that compose them. A word may consist of 1 or more morphemes, each morpheme them conveys a particular lexical or grammatical meaning.
The morpheme - is the smallest meaningful, further indivisible recurrent component of a word or a word form.
3. If the approach from the point of view of speech, we can observe the following phenomenon: the morphemes like words may exhibit different forms in the process of speaking. It depends on their position within the word. E.g.: the regular formative of the plural number morpheme "s" may be represented in speech in different ways.
In languageIn speech
[s] - book
- (e)s[z] - boys
[iz] - boxes
Allomorphs are speech variants of morphemes.
At the basis of allo-emic elements lies the division into language and speech. The term morphemes stands for the whole grammatically relevant class of forms. They belong to language. It is an abstract entity which expresses particular grammatical meaning. Em-terms denote generalized invariants of language, characterized by a certain functional status ( Allo-morphes denote the concrete manifestation of invariants, of the generalized units, dependent on the regular colligation with other elements of the language.Invariants are abstract. The allo-morphs (or variant morphemes ) like [s], [z], [iz] are phonologically predictable, but we have many examples of allo-morphs , which can't be explained by usage of speech criteria. Thus, the English plural form of the word "ox" - "oxen" is grammatically parallel to "dogs". "En" is an
irregular form of the plural number. There are other irregular forms: "children", "geese". Professor Robins considered them to be allo-morphs of the plural number morphemes. According to the tradition, which goes back to Panini Grammar, such specific forms as......... are considered by linguists as having any form (0 form ) of plural number.
There is another group of words which have a specific morphemic structure: E.g.:"man - men", "tooth - teeth". The plural forming morpheme is represented not by any recurrent formative like [s], but a process of root vowel interchange. E.g.: [ж] - [e] etc. We are dealing here with infix morphemes. Such word forms are rarely survivals of the specific morphemic structure of Old English. To simplify the complicated
system of analysis, professor Ilysh V.A. and others refer all the speech exhibits of the plural number morphemes to the allo-morphs of the plural number morphemes, which graphically may be depicted as following: Language Speech plural number morphemes [s], [z], [iz], [ш], [ж]--[e], [f]--[vz],[u]--[i]. The analysis and classification of different phonological forms in which morphemes appear, both in individual languages and in languages in general is called Morphonology, which is the same as morphophonemics. When discussing the different forms of the English plural number morphemes we applied the morphophonological analysis.
4. There are two criteria in classifying morphemes:
1). Positional
2). Functinal (semantic).
According to positional criterion morphemes are divided into: root morphemes and affixal morphemes (affixes,{prefixes, infixes, suffixes}). In other words, root morphemes are called free morphemes, while affixal are bound morphemes. A free morpheme is vand ?. a bound morpheme is one, that must appear with at least one other morpheme, bound or free. E.g.: "work"+"ed". Root morphemes are unlimited in number. Affixes are bound morphemes, they are limited in number, and may be exhaustedly elisted. Some words have more than one morpheme, they are compound words. E.g.: " bird-cherry ", "scare-crow". In English the majority of roots are free. But nevertheless there are bound root morphemes. They are the following.
E.g.: receive, conceive
retain, contain
transfer, refer.
Affix is a term denoting recurrent formative morphemes, other than roots. From the point of view of formal presentation we distinguish: overt [ouvit] and covert [kA vit]. Overt morphemes are represented explicitly: "retell", "asked"; covert morphemes coincide with 0(zero morpheme). Every morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit, thus "ed" conveys the morpheme of Past tense. We should differentiate form-building morphemes (that are grammatical) and word-building
morphemes (they are lexical). E.g.: movement , outline - word-building morphemes asked, asks, getting - form-building morphemes 5. Form-building morpheme is called word changing. Modern English extremely poor according to the word-changing, but there are some.
1). Affixation.
It is the use of epithets. E.g.: "bus" - "buses".
Only Suffixation is used in modern English. Prefixation was productive in old English period. For the formation of perfect participle
2). Sound Interchange.
Vowel interchange Consonant interchange
3). Supplative forms
"bad" - "worse" - "worst"
"go" - "went" - "gone"
"be", "is", "are", "am" - "was", "were" - "been".
All of 1), 2), 3) - belong to the syntactic way of form-building.
4). Analytical forms are particular word-combinations, made up of an auxiliary or a notional word.
LECTURE 4.
Analytical forms are very productive in modern English
Grammar deals with form-building .
is.....................................................ing
have................................................en frames
was..................................................ed
continuous morphemes
The matter is, that the analytical ???????? (can be put) consist of two meaningful morphemes. Analytical morphemes are not free word combination like "a red rose", neither are phraseological units like " red tape"(burocracy). Analytical forms can't be compared with words, they are word forms like synthetic forms, performing a definite grammatical function. The word
1. The definition of the word.
2. The characteristic features of the word.
3. The two planes of the word.
The word is the main object of lexicology as well. It is not easy to give rigorous definition of the word. Since it is very complex and many sided phenomenon. The term "word" denotes the basic unit of a given language, resulting from the associations of a particular meaning with the particular group of sounds, capable of the particular grammatical employment. Arnold, "The
English word". This working definition of the word implies that the word is simultaneously
a semantical and grammatical unit. There are many definitions of the word and none of them are generally accepted. The word is considered to be the minimal potential sentence, the minimal free linguistic form, the elementary component of the sentence, the sound symbol, the meaningfully integral and immediately identifiable unit.
The difficulty in defining the word compel some linguists to exclude the word from the basic unit of the language. L. Bloomfield school in US. That school linguists consider the morpheme and the phoneme to be the basic units of linguistic description, for the phoneme can be easily isolated from the context thanks to its minimal elementary segmental character. They consider the phoneme to be the minimal formal segment of language and the morpheme to be the ultimate
meaningful segment. The main drawback of descriptive linguistics is that they approach the definition of the linguistic units on a formal basis. The other linguists came to the conclusion, that such units must be defined by taking into consideration their formal and functional (semantic) features.
2. In actual speech people experience no difficulty in separating one word from another. Traditionally, linguists point out isolatebility as the most characteristic features of the word. One word can form a sentence ("Fire!", "Thanks!",...). Another characteristic feature of the word is its
uninterruptibility or indivisibility. Even if you take compound words, such as "blackberry", "blue-eyed", you won't be able to insert another word in the middle of this compound word. Third feature is a certain looseness in the sentence, i.e. that you may place the word in different parts of the sentence. E.g.: "The bat flew down."="Down flew the bat."But still, don't forget, that the English word-order is rigid unlike the Russian word order. Russian language is a highly developed morphological system. The set looseness is marked in writing by the graphic form of the word with certain spaces between the words.
In oral speech, every word is separated from its neighbours by one unit pause. Some difficulty is paused by the application of the term "word". Some linguists regard such group of words as work, worked, is working as one word. The whole group can't be used as a unit of speech, for the unit must belong both to language & speech. Of all the group, only the element "work" can be regarded as an objective unit of the language. All the grammeme are called lexeme. "A lexeme is a group of word forms, united by the common lexical meaning, but having different grammatical meaning."
If we take a group of words, united by the common grammatical meaning, we shall get a grammeme.
E.g.: sleeps, reads, tries, fucks - Grammeme.
A number of elements of the lexeme may vary from 1 ("must") to many.
E.g.: The lexeme, represented by the word "wright" Þ contains Þ 94 elements, expressed by 64 forms.
The number of words in a grammeme is practically limitless. But the gammeme having the meaning only Past tense, indicative mood, plural number, not perfect, not continuos aspects, contains only 1 word : were .The word is a nominative ( naming ) unit of language .It enters the vocabulary as its elementary component indivisible into smaller segments.The word is used for the formation of the sentence. The word is the basic unit of the language , which occupies the key position in the language. It's universal in its character. It is capable of performing any function in the language : nominative, significant, communicative & pragmatic. The functional sphere of the word is very wide. It may represent a morpheme ( free place ), a nominative sign ( desk ), A part of a word group ( a big fire ) & a sentence ( Fire! ).
3. A word is a linguistic sing. A linguistic sign is a bilateral entity, having it a content & formal side, which correlates with the concept & may indirectly reflect the objects & phenomena of objective reality ( extralinguistic reality ). Not all the linguistic signs have reference to the outer world. Being a bilateral linguistic sign, the word is characterized by 2 planes :
The plane of content
The plane of expression.
bombthe plan of expression
the plane of content
The first & the second are the dialectical unity of form and content. In the plane of expression, the word has its material representation. In oral speech it is represented acoustically by a group of sounds, in written speech - graphically. The plane of content includes the lexical meaning of word. The word exists in two dimensions, namely as a virtual polysemantic sign of the vocabulary, and as an actual sign, used in speech.
The virtual side of the language sign exists in the sphere of language. It is an unrealized word, while the actual side of the word belongs to the syntagmatic sphere of speech.
LECTURE N 5.
Theme : Grammatical categories.
Grammar abstracts itself from particular meanings of words and deals with the most generalized meanings, that may be proper to big groups of words with different lexical meanings.
In logic, the most general notions reflecting the most general properties of some phenomena are called categorial notions ( or categories ). The most general meanings in Linguistics are regularly expressed through the system of the paradigmatically organized word forms and are interpreted as categorial meanings.
According to the general methodological law, every content must have a certain material form of expression. If we take a generalized meaning of plurality we can find its material implementation in many word forms such as : streets, cars, houses, girls, students which make up a grammeme. The grammatical phenomena, like the word in lexicology are also characterized by the 2 planes : the plane of content ( meaning ) & the plane of form ( expression ).
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