Математический аппарат квантовой теории - вопросы и задачи
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¥¬ 1. âà¨æë. ¡é¨¥ ®¯à¥¤¥«¥¨ïT^ = (tmn ) ¨ T^+ = (t+mn = tnm ) §ë¢ îâ íନ⮢® ᮯàï¥ë¬¨.^ = T^ (â.¥.¥á«¨ tmn = tnm ), â® ¬ âà¨æã T^ §ë¢ îâ á ¬®á®¯à葉© ¨«¨ íନ⮢®©.+1^ = U^ , £¤¥ U^ 1 | ®¡à â ï ª U^ , â® ¬ âà¨æã U^ §ë¢ îâ ã¨â ன. ᫨ U ¬®á®¯àï¥ãî ¬ âà¨æã T^ ¬®® ¯à¥¤áâ ¢¨âì ¢ ä®à¬¥ ¯à®¨§¢¥¤¥¨ï ¬ âà¨æT^ = U^ t^ U^ + ;()^ | ã¨â à ï ¬ âà¨æ , U^ + = U^ 1; t^ | ¤¨ £® «ì ï ¬ âà¨æ á ¤¥©á⢨⥫ì묨 í«¥¬¥£¤¥ Uâ ¬¨,t^mn = tm Æmn ; tm = tm :¨á« tm , 䨣ãà¨àãî騥 ¢ ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«¥¨¨ () | í⮠ᮡáâ¢¥ë¥ ç¨á« ¬ âà¨æë T^, ¯à¨ ¤«¥^ : ¥á«¨ v(m) = (vn(m) = 騥 í⨬ ç¨á« ¬ ᮡáâ¢¥ë¥ ¢¥ªâ®à áâà®ïâáï ¨§ á⮫¡æ®¢ ¬ âà¨æë UUnm ), â®XTpl vl(m) = vp(m) tm :.1. âà¨æë ᫨ T +.2.lf g^®¢®ªã¯®áâì ç¨á¥« tm §ë¢ îâ ᯥªâ஬ ¬ âà¨æë T .
᫨ ªà â®áâì ª ¤®£® ᮡá⢥®£®§ 票ï tm à ¢ ¥¤¨¨æ¥, â® £®¢®àïâ, çâ® T | ¬ âà¨æ á ç¨áâ® ¥¢ëத¥ë¬ ᯥªâ஬.¯à ¢¥¤«¨¢ë á«¥¤ãî騥 á®®â®è¥¨ï^Xm(vm(l) )vm(p) = Ælp ;X (l) (l) vm (vn ) = Æmn ;l®§ ç î騥, ç⮠ᮡáâ¢¥ë¥ ¢¥ªâ®à N-à冷© á ¬®áo¯à葉© ¬ âà¨æë ®¡à §ãîâ ®à⮮ନ஢ ë© ¡ §¨á ¢ N-¬¥à®¬ ¢¥ªâ®à®¬ ª®¬¯«¥ªá®¬ ¯à®áâà á⢥..3. «¥¤®¬ ¬ âà¨æëT^ §ë¢ ¥âáï á㬬 ¥¥ ¤¨ £® «ìëå í«¥¬¥â®¢T r T^ =XnTnn :ᮢ®¥ ᢮©á⢠᫥¤ ¥áâì ¢®§¬®®áâì 横«¨ç¥áª®© ¯¥à¥áâ ®¢ª¨ ᮬ®¨â¥«¥© ¯®¤ § ª®¬á«¥¤ T r A^B^ = T r B^ A^ ; T r A^B^ C^ = T r C^ B^ A^ ; ::: ;®âªã¤ á«¥¤ã¥â, çâ® á«¥¤ ¬ âà¨æë ¥áâì á㬬 ¥¥ ᮡá⢥ëå § 票©. ¬¥¥â ¬¥áâ® â ª¥á«¥¤ãî饥 á®®â®è¥¨¥ ¬¥¤ã á«¥¤®¬ ¨ ¤¥â¥à¬¨ ⮬ ¬ âà¨æëDet T^ = exp(T rln T^) :.4.
®¬¬ãâ â®à®¬ ¤¢ãå ¬ âà¨æ §ë¢ ¥âáï ®¯¥à æ¨ï[A;^ B^ ℄ = A^B^ B^ A^ :®¬¬ãâ â®à ®¡« ¤ ¥â á«¥¤ãî騬¨ ®á®¢ë¬¨ ᢮©á⢠¬¨:^ A^℄ ;[A;^ B^ ℄ = [B;^ C^℄ = A^[B;^ C^℄ + [A;^ C^℄B^ ;[A;^ B^ C^ ℄ = [A;^ B^ ℄C^ + B^ [A;^ C^℄ ; [A^B;^ [C;^ A^℄℄ + [C;^ [A;^ B^ ℄℄ = 0 :[A;^ [B^ C^ ℄℄ + [B;DZ®á«¥¤¥¥ à ¢¥á⢮ ¥áâì â ª §ë¢ ¥¬®¥ ⮤¥á⢮ ª®¡¨. ᫨ ¬ âà¨æ CA; B ª®¬¬ãâ¨àã¥â á B B; C; â®^ = [ ^ ^℄^ : [ ^ ^℄ = 0[A;^ B^ n℄ = nC^B^n 1 ; n = 1; 2; ::: :1 ᫨ ¬®® ®¯à¥¤¥«¨âì äãªæ¨î¡ã¤¥â ¨¬¥âì ¬¥áâ® à ¢¥á⢮F®â ¬ âà¨æë^ B^ ℄ ¨ [B;^ C^℄ = 0B , â® ¯à¨ â¥å ¥ ãá«®¢¨ïå C^ = [A;^ 0(B^) = F 0(B^ )C^ :[A;^ F (B^ )℄ = CF^^=.5. ᫨ í«¥¬¥âë ¬ âà¨æë T ¨¬¥îâ ¢¨¤ ¯à®¨§¢¥¤¥¨ï tpsap bs ; â® ¬ âà¨æã T §ë¢ îâ¯àï¬ë¬ ¯à®¨§¢¥¤¥¨¥¬ á⮫¡æ a (á«¥¢ ) áâபã b (á¯à ¢ ) ¨ ®¡®§ ç îâ ᨬ¢®«®¬0a1B a2T^ = B ...1CC ( b1 b2A0a b1 1B a2 b1=B ... bN )a1 b2 a1bN 1a2 b2 a2bN C....
CA :..aN b1 aN b2 aN bNaN.6. DZ஥ªæ¨®®© ¬ âà¨æ¥© ¨«¨ ¯à®¥ªâ®à®¬ §ë¢ ¥âáï ¬ âà¨æ P^ , ®¡« ¤ îé ï ᢮©á⢠¬¨^ Det P^ = 0 :P^ = P^ + ; P^ 2 = P;. ¢ãåàï¤ë¥ ¬ âà¨æë.1.DZãáâìDZ஢¥àìâ¥, ç⮠᫨T^ =t11 t12t21 t22() = jE^ T^j = 2() = 0, â® ª®à¨ í⮣® ãà ¢¥¨ï à ¢ë1;2 =¯à¨ í⮬12:(T r T^) + Det T^ :p(t11 + t22) 12 (t11t22)2 + 4t12t21 ;1 + 2 = T r T^ ; 1 2 = Det T^: ª¨¬ ®¡à §®¬() = (1 )( 2 ) ;çâ® ¥áâì å à ªâ¥à¨áâ¨ç¥áª®¥ ãà ¢¥¨¥ ¬ âà¨æëT^..2. ¥¯®á।áâ¢¥ë¬ ¢ëç¨á«¥¨¥¬ ¯®ª ¨â¥, çâ® ¬ âà¨æ ç¥áª®¬ã ãà ¢¥¨î, â.¥..3.T^ 㤮¢«¥â¢®àï¥â ᢮¥¬ã å à ªâ¥à¨áâ¨-(T^) = (T^ 1E^ )(T^ 2E^) = 0:DZ®ª ¨â¥, çâ® ¥á«¨ 1 6= 2 ¨ T^ = T^+ , â® ¬ âà¨æë1 T^ 2E^ ; P^2 = 1 T^P^1 =1 22 11 E^ïîâáï ¯à®¥ªæ¨®ë¬¨.
¥¯®á।áâ¢¥ë¬ ¢ëç¨á«¥¨¥¬ ¯®ª ¨â¥, çâ® ¤«ï ¯à®¥ªâ®à®¢ á¯à ¢¥¤«¨¢ë à ¢¥á⢠(P^1)2 = P^1 ; (P^2)2 = P^2 ; P^1+ = P^1 ; P^2+ = P^2 ;P^1P^2 = P^2P^1 = 0 ; P^1 + P^2 = E^ ; 1 P^1 + 2P^2 = T^ :.4. ¥¯®á।áâ¢¥ë¬ ¢ëç¨á«¥¨¥¬ ¯®ª ¨â¥, çâ®T^2 = 21 P^1 + 22 P^2 :DZo«ì§ãïáì ¨¤ãªæ¨¥©, ¤®ª ¨â¥, çâ®T^n = n1 P^1 + n2 P^2 :2().5.
DZ।¯®«®¨¬, çâ® äãªæ¨îá⥯¥®£® àï¤ f (x)¤¥©á⢨⥫쮩 ¯¥à¥¬¥®©f (x) =Xn=0x¬®® ¯à¥¤áâ ¢¨âì á ¯®¬®éìîfn xn : í⮬ á«ãç ¥ ¬®® ®¯à¥¤¥«¨âì äãªæ¨î ¬ âà¨æëf (x) =Xn=0fn T^n :¥¯®á।áâ¢¥ë¬ ¢ëç¨á«¥¨¥¬ ¯®ª ¨â¥, çâ® ¥á«¨T^ ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«ï¥âáï ¢ ä®à¬¥ (), â®f (T^) = f (1 )P^1 + f (2 )P^2 ;¨f (T^) = f (1 ).6. ᫨ ¬ âà¨æ 11 2T^ 2 E^+ f (2) 2 1 1 T^1 E^ :T^ íନ⮢ ¨ t11 > t22 , â® ¬ âà¨æë P^1 ¨ P^2 ¯à¨¢®¤ïâáï ª ¢¨¤ã ^P1 = u1u1 u1u2 = u1 ( u1 ; u2 ) ;u2 u1 u2u2u2P^1 =£¤¥v1 v1 v1v2v2 v1 v2v2=v1 ( v ; v ) ;12v2u1 = e i=2 os ; u2 = ei=2 sin ;22v1 = e i=2 sin ; u2 = ei=2 os ;2t11 t22 = R os ;2t12 = Re2i sin :.7. ¥¯®á।áâ¢¥ë¬ ¢ëç¨á«¥¨¥¬ ¯®ª § âì, çâ® ¬ âà¨æë DZ 㫨010i^1 = 1 0 ; ^2 = i 0^+ = ^ ; = 1; 2; 3 ;;10^3 = 0 1;a) íନ⮢ë, â.¥.¡) ¯®¤ç¨ïîâáï á«¥¤ãî饬㠧 ª®ã 㬮¥¨ï^^ = Æ + i" ^ ;^ =^8 ;2¢ ç áâ®áâ¨, E ¢) á«¥¤ ª ¤®© ¬ âà¨æë DZ 㫨 à ¢¥ ã«î:.8.
DZãáâìT r ^ = 0 8:~a = (a1 ; a2 ; a3 ) | ¯à®¨§¢®«ìë© ¢¥ªâ®à.~^~a =DZ®ª § âì, çâ®X¯à¥¤¥«¨¬ ¬ âà¨æãa3a1 ia2a ^ = a +iaa312:(~~a)(~~b) = (~a~b)E^ + i~ (~a ~b) :.9. ¥¯®á।áâ¢¥ë¬ ¢ëç¨á«¥¨¥¬ ¯®ª § âì, çâ® ¤«ï «î¡®£® ¤¥©á⢨⥫쮣® ¢¥ªâ®à ¥âáï à ¢¥á⢮exp (i~~a) = E^ os a + i~~n sin a ;a ¥áâì ¤«¨ ¢¥ªâ®à ~a, ¥¤¨¨çë© ¢¥ªâ®à ~n § ¤ ¥â ¯à ¢«¥¨¥ ~a = a~n.®ª § âì, çâ® ¯à®¨§¢®«ìãî äãªæ¨î f (~~a) ¬®® ¯à¥¤áâ ¢¨âì ¢ ä®à¬¥£¤¥.10.f (~~a) =12[f (a) + f ( a)℄E^ + 21 [f (a)3f ( a)℄ ~~n ;~a ¢ë¯®«ï-£¤¥a ¥áâì ¤«¨ ¢¥ªâ®à ~a, ¥¤¨¨çë© ¢¥ªâ®à ~n § ¤ ¥â ¯à ¢«¥¨¥ ~a = a~n..11.
DZ।áâ ¢¨âì ¢ ¢¨¤¥ «¨¥©®© ª®¬¡¨ 樨 ¥¤¨¨ç®© ¬ âà¨æë ¨ ¬ âà¨æ DZ 㫨:a)¡) (aE^ + ~b ~)exp(~a ~) ;¢) f (aE^ + ~b ~) :;1exp(i'3)1 exp( i'3) ; £¤¥ ' | ¯à®¨§¢®«ì®¥ ¤¥©á⢨⥫쮥 ç¨á«®.ëç¨á«¨âì T r ^ ; T r ^^ ; T r ^^ ^ ; T r ^^ ^ ^Æ :^1; A^2℄, £¤¥ A^i = aiE^ + ~bi ~^; i = 1; 2:ëç¨á«¨âì ª®¬¬ãâ â®à [ADZ®ª § âì, çâ® ¯à®¨§¢®«ìãî á ¬®á®¯àï¥ãî ¬ âà¨æã à §¬¥à®á⨠2 2 ¬®® ¯à¥¤áâ ¢¨âì ¢ä®à¬¥T^ = t0E^ + ~t~ ;.12. ëç¨á«¨âì.13..14..15.£¤¥t0 = 21 T r T^ ; t = 12 T r (^T^) ; Det T^ = t20 ~t 2 ;â.¥.t0 =12(1 + 2) ;~t 2 =14 (12 )2 :.16. ¥¯®á।áâ¢¥ë¬ ¢ëç¨á«¥¨¥¬ ¯®ª § âì, ç⮠ᯥªâà «ìë¥ ¯à®¥ªâ®àë íନ⮢®© ¬ âà¨æ묮® ¯à¥¤áâ ¢¨âì ¢ ¢¨¤¥P^1 = 12 E^ +P^2 = 12 E^¯®í⮬㠯ந§¢®«ìãî äãªæ¨î ¬ âà¨æëf (T^) = f (1 )12E^ +1~t~ ;1~t~ ;1 21 2T^ ¬®® ¯à¥¤áâ ¢¨âì ¢ ä®à¬¥11 2~t~+ f (2 )= 21 [f (1) + f (2 )℄ + f (11).17.
DZ®ª § âì, çâ® ¥á«¨ ¤¢ãåàï¤ ï ¬ âà¨æ ªà â ¥¤¨¨ç®©:.18.T^12E^11 2~t~=f (2 ) ~(t~) :2ª®¬¬ãâ¨àã¥â á® ¢á¥¬¨ ¬ âà¨æ ¬¨ DZ 㫨, â® ® [^; T^℄ = 0 ; 8 ! T^ = (tkl = tÆkl): ©â¨ ®¡é¨© ¢¨¤ ¬ âà¨æ ¢ ¯à®áâà á⢥ ¬ âà¨æ 2 2, ª®â®àë¥ ï¢«ïîâáï ®¤®¢à¥¬¥® íନ⮢묨 ¨ ã¨â à묨..19. ©â¨ ®¡é¨© ¢¨¤ ã¨â àëå ¬ âà¨æ ¢ ¯à®áâà á⢥ ¬ âà¨æ.20. DZਠª ª¨å § 票ïå ¯ à ¬¥âà ¬ âà¨æ M^2 2.= 11==42 1=2ï¥âáï ¯à®¥ªæ¨®®©?.21. ëç¨á«¨âì ᮡáâ¢¥ë¥ § ç¥¨ï ¬ âà¨æëH^ = VE1 EV2DZ®áâநâì £à 䨪¨ § ¢¨á¨¬®á⨠ᮡá⢥ëå § 票©.22.
DZãáâì ¬ âà¨æ ^a â ª®¢ , çâ®:H^®â ¯ à ¬¥âà V.^a^2 = 0; a^a^+ + a^+ ^a = E: ©â¨ ᯥªâà ¬ âà¨æë n^ = a^+ ^a. ©â¨ ï¢ë© ¢¨¤ a^ ¨ a^+ ª ª ¬ âà¨æ 2 2.4. âà¨æë à §¬¥à®áâ¨N N.1. DZ®ª ¨â¥, çâ® ¯à®¨§¢®«ì ï N-àï¤ ï ¬ âà¨æ 㤮¢«¥â¢®àï¥â ᢮¥¬ã å à ªâ¥à¨áâ¨ç¥áª®¬ããà ¢¥¨î, â.¥. ¥á«¨() = jE^ T^j ;â®(T^) = 0 :.2. DZ®ª ¨â¥, çâ® ¥á«¨ ¢á¥ ª®à¨ å à ªâ¥à¨áâ¨ç¥áª®£® ãà ¢¥¨ï à §«¨çë, â.¥.ãà ¢¥¨îT^㤮¢«¥â¢®àï¥â(1 T^)(2 T^):::(N T^) = 0 ;â® ¬ âà¨æëT^ l E^P^k =1lN; l=6 k k lY®¡« ¤ îâ ᢮©á⢠¬¨!; k = 1; :::; N ;P^k P^l = P^l P^k = Ækl P^k ;XP^k = E^ ;kT^ =Xkk P^k :DZந§¢®«ì ï äãªæ¨ï ¬ âà¨æë T^ ¯à¨ í⮬ à ¢ Xf (T^) = f (k )P^k :k.3.
DZãáâìA^ | ¤¨ £® «ì ï ¬ âà¨æ , ¯à¨ç¥¬ á।¨ ¥¥ í«¥¬¥â®¢ ¥â ®¤¨ ª®¢ëå, â.¥.A^ = (akl = ak Ækl )¨.4..5.ak 6= al ; ¥á«¨ k 6= l:^^, â® ® â ª¥ ¤¨ £® «ì :DZ®ª ¨â¥, çâ® ¥á«¨ ¬ âà¨æ B ª®¬¬ãâ¨àã¥â á A[A;^ B^ ℄ = 0 ! B^ = (bkl = bkÆkl):^ ¬®® ®¯à¥¤¥«¨âì ª ª äãªæ¨î ¬ âà¨æëDZ®ª ¨â¥, çâ® ¢ ãá«®¢¨ïå § ¤ ç¨ .3. ¬ âà¨æã B^A : B^ = f (A^):®ª § âì, çâ® ¯à®¨§¢®«ìãî äãªæ¨î á ¬®áo¯à葉© ¬ âà¨æë T^ ¬®® ¯à¥¤áâ ¢¨âì ¢ ä®à¬¥Xf (T^) = f (tl )P^l :l^^.6. DZ®ª ¨â¥, çâ® ¥á«¨ T | á ¬®á®¯àï¥ ï ¬ âà¨æ á ¥¢ëத¥ë¬ ᯥªâ஬, â® ¬ âà¨æã A¬®® ¯à¥¤áâ ¢¨âì ª ª äãªæ¨î T ¢ ⮬ ¨ ⮫쪮 ¢ ⮬ á«ãç ¥, ¥á«¨ ¬ âà¨æë A ¨ T ª®¬¬ãâ¨àãîâ.^^ ^.7. ®ª ¨â¥, çâ® ¥«ì§ï ©â¨ â ª¨¥ ¬ âà¨æë.8. DZãáâì1F^ = ( fsp = pN^ B^ ℄ = E;^ 6= 0:A^ ¨ B^ , çâ® [A;exp(i2sp=N ) );s; p = 0; :::; NDZ®ª ¨â¥, çâ®: ) ¬ âà¨æ F ã¨â à ;¡) á¯à ¢¥¤«¨¢ë ä®à¬ã«ë ª®¥ç®£® ¯à¥®¡à §®¢ ¨ï ãàì¥: ¥á«¨^xp =X5sfps ys ;1:â®Xys =p:xp fps.9.
ª®«ìª® ¥§ ¢¨á¨¬ëå á⥯¥¥© ᢮¡®¤ë ¨¬¥¥â ã¨â à ï ¬ âà¨æ à §¬¥à®á⨬ âà¨æ à §¬¥à®á⨠n n ?. âà¨æë à §¬¥à®áâ¨.1. DZ®ª § âì, çâ® ¬ âà¨æë00 1 011s^1 = p 1 0 1 A2 0 1 0;nn ?íନ⮢ ï3300 1 011s^2 = p 1 0 1 Ai 2 01 001 0 01s^3 = 0 0 0 A0 0 1; ) íନ⮢ë;¡) 㤮¢«¥â¢®àïîâ ¯¥à¥áâ ®¢®çë¬ á®®â®è¥¨ï¬[^s; s^ ℄ = i" s^ :.2. DZ®ª § âì, çâ® ª ¤ ï ¨§ ¬ âà¨æ^ =^.3. DZ®ª § âì, çâ® ¬ âà¨æë vs2 ) 㤮¢«¥â¢®àïîâ á®®â®è¥¨ï¬s^㤮¢«¥â¢®àï¥â ãà ¢¥¨îT^3 = T^:v^+ = v^ ; v^2 = v^ ;¡) ¯®¯ à® ª®¬¬ãâ¨àãîâ8; [^v; s^ ℄ = 0 ;á) ¯®«ãç¨âì ï¢ë¥ ¢ëà ¥¨ï ¤«ï ¬ âà¨æ.4.
DZãáâì ) ©â¨ ᮡá⢥ë¥T^.¡) ¯à¥¤áâ ¢¨âìv^v^ .T^ = a1 v^1 + a2 v^2 + a3 v^3 ; a1 6= a2 ; a1 6= a3 ; a2 6= a3 :§ ç¥¨ï ¨ ᮡáâ¢¥ë¥ ¢¥ªâ®à T^ ¨ ¯®«ãç¨âì ᯥªâà «ì®¥ª ª äãªæ¨î.5. DZ®ª § âì, çâ® ¥á«¨ ¬ âà¨æëS^à §«®¥¨¥T^.®¯à¥¤¥«ïîâáï ç¥à¥§ ᢮¨ ¬ âà¨çë¥ í«¥¬¥âë ª ª(S^) = i" ;; ; = 1; 2; 3;â® í⨠¬ âà¨æë: ) íନ⮢ë;¡) 㤮¢«¥â¢®àïîâ ¯¥à¥áâ ®¢®çë¬ á®®â®è¥¨ï¬¢) ©â¨ ã¨â àãî ¬ âà¨æãâà¨æ s ¢ ¬ âà¨æë S :^^.6. ©â¨ ï¢ë© ¢¨¤ ¬ âà¨æ ~s2á® ¢á¥¬¨ ¬ âà¨æ ¬¨:33U^ ,[S^; S^ ℄ = i" S^ :á ¯®¬®éìî ª®â®à®© ¡ã¤¥â ®áãé¥á⢫ïâìáï ¯à¥®¡à §®¢ ¨¥ ¬ -S^ = U^ s^ U^ + := P s2 ¨ S~2 = P S2 . ®ª § âì, çâ® ¬ âà¨æë ~s2 ¨ S~ 2 ª®¬¬ãâ¨àãîâ.7. ©â¨ á¢ï§ì ¬¥¤ã ᮡá⢥묨 ¢¥ªâ®à ¬¨ ¬ âà¨æ§ ¤ ç¨ .5.s^¨S^ç¥à¥§ ã¨â àãî ¬ âà¨æãU.8. ᯮ«ì§ãï § ¤ çã .7. , ¯®ª § âì ¡¥§ £® ¢ëç¨á«¥¨ï, ç⮠ᮡáâ¢¥ë¥ § ç¥¨ï ¬ âà¨æS ¤®«ë ᮢ¯ ¤ âì.^; s3 ¨ S~ 2 ; S3 .§ 票© ¬ âà¨æ s^1 ; s^2 ; S^1 ; S^2 ..9.
©â¨ ï¢ë© ¢¨¤ ᮡá⢥ëå ¢¥ªâ®à®¢ ¨ ᮡá⢥ëå § 票© ¬ âà¨æ ~s2.10. ©â¨ ï¢ë© ¢¨¤ ᮡá⢥ëå ¢¥ªâ®à®¢ ¨ ᮡá⢥ëå6¨§s^¨.11. ëç¨á«¨âì ᮡáâ¢¥ë¥ § ç¥¨ï ¬ âà¨æë0E1 VH^ = V E20V1V A :0E3DZ®áâநâì £à 䨪¨ § ¢¨á¨¬®á⨠ᮡá⢥ëå § 票©Hi; i = 1; 2; 3; ®â ¯ à ¬¥âà V .¥¬ 2. ¯¥à â®àëA. ¡é¨¥ ¯®«®¥¨ïA1. ¬ ⥬ â¨ç¥áª®¬ ¯¯ à ⥠ª¢ ⮢®© ⥮ਨ 䨧¨ç¥áª¨¬ ¢¥«¨ç¨ ¬ ( ¡«î¤ ¥¬ë¬) ᮯ®áâ -^= ^^¢«ïîâáï íà¬¨â®¢ë ¨«¨ á ¬®á®¯àï¥ë¥ ®¯¥à â®àë, â.¥.
â ª¨¥, çâ® AA+ , £¤¥ A+ | ®¯¥à â®à,íନ⮢® ᮯàï¥ë© ª A.DZ८¡à §®¢ ¨ï, ¥ ¢«¨ïî騥 § 票ï 䨧¨ç¥áª¨å ¢¥«¨ç¨, â.¥. § ¬¥ë ¯¥à¥¬¥ëå, ¨¬¥î⢨¤^£¤¥U^A^ ! A^0 = U^ + A^ U^ ;()| ã¨â àë© ®¯¥à â®à, ®¡« ¤ î騩 å à ªâ¥à¨áâ¨ç¥áª¨¬ ᢮©á⢮¬^U^ U^ + = U^ + U^ = E:A2. «¥¤®¬ ®¯¥à â®à A^ §ë¢ ¥âáï á㬬 ¤¨ £® «ìëå í«¥¬¥â®¢ ᮮ⢥âáâ¢ãî饩 ¥¬ã ¬ âà¨æë:T r A^ =XnAnn :á®¢ë¥ á¢®©á⢠᫥¤ : ) «¨¥©®áâì | T r A B( ^ + ^ ) = T r A^ + T r B^ ;^ ¨ B^ ¨¬¥¥â ¬¥áâ® à ¢¥á⢮ T r A^B^ = T r B^ A^;¡) 横«¨ç®áâì | ¤«ï «î¡ëå A¢) ¥§ ¢¨á¨¬®áâì ®â ¢ë¡®à ¯à¥¤áâ ¢«¥¨ï.A3.